文中的擬態者 勞旦橫口鳚 (Plagiotremus laudandus) photo from Dianne J. Bray, 2011, Bicolor Fangblenny, Plagiotremus laudandus, in Fishes of Australia

文章中的被擬態者，金鰭稀棘䲁 (Meiacanthus atrodorsalis) photo: Dianne J. Bray, 2011, Eyelash Fangblenny, Meiacanthus atrodorsalis, in Fishes of Australia, accessed 31 Mar 2016

標題：Multiple selective pressures apply to a coral reef fish mimic: a case of Batesian-aggressive mimicry.

摘要

Mimics closely resemble unrelated species to avoid predation, capture prey or gain access to hosts or reproductive opportunities. However, the classification of mimicry systems into three established evolutionary mechanisms (protection, reproduction and foraging) can be contentious because multiple benefits may be gained by mimics, causing the evolution of such systems to be driven by more than one selective agent. However, data on such systems are generally speculative or anecdotal. This study provides empirical evidence that dual benefits apply to a coral reef fish mimic in terms of increased access to food (aggressive mimicry) and reduced predation risk (Batesian mimicry). Bicolour fangblennies Plagiotremus laudandus gained access to more reef fish victims, which they attack to feed on fins and scales, when they spent more time associated with their model Meiacanthus atrodorsalis. Furthermore, exact replicas of P. laudandus incurred fewer approaches from potential predators compared with control replicas that varied in resemblance to P. laudandus. Predators with trichromatic visual systems (three distinct spectral sensitivities) could potentially distinguish between replicas based on colour based on theoretical vision models. Therefore, this mimicry system could be best described as Batesian–aggressive mimicry in which mimicry evolution is driven by multiple simultaneous selective pressures.

photo from Fig. 1 a) i. 金鰭稀棘鳚 (Meiacanthus atrodorsalis) ii. 勞旦橫口鳚 (Plagiotremus laudandus) b) 三種手工實驗用假魚與控制組物種粗吻橫口鳚 (P. rhinorhynchos)

通常科學家會把牽涉擬態的物種歸類，譬如說這是貝氏擬態，那是穆氏擬態，也有可能是介於兩者間的負貝氏擬態，那麼會不會有一個物種同時牽涉兩種擬態的系統呢？

photo from Fig. 2 此圖說明model/mimic比例的高低與攻擊成功率無關（黑圈圈），但花在model旁邊時間越多，成功率較高（白鑽石）

photo from Fig. 3 左邊是捕食性魚類，右邊是非捕食性魚類 從上而下分別是三組：沒model/有mimic (Lizard island)，有model/有mimic (Lizard island)，有model/有mimic (Pulau Hoga)

photo from Smithsonian Insider

photo from content 化石銀杏葉子的食痕

Juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia, Holotype photo from Smithsonian Insider

ginkgoalean leaf Yimaia capituliformis（銀杏葉子的化石）photo from Smithsonian Insider

標題：Jurassic mimicry between a hangingfly and a ginkgo from China.

摘要

A near-perfect mimetic association between a mecopteran insect species and a ginkgoalean plant species from the late Middle Jurassic of northeastern China recently has been discovered. The association stems from a case of mixed identity between a particular plant and an insect in the laboratory and the field. This confusion is explained as a case of leaf mimesis, wherein the appearance of the multilobed leaf of Yimaia capituliformis (the ginkgoalean model) was accurately replicated by the wings and abdomen of the cimbrophlebiid Juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia (the hangingfly mimic). Our results suggest that hangingflies developed leaf mimesis either as an antipredator avoidance device or possibly as a predatory strategy to provide an antiherbivore function for its plant hosts, thus gaining mutual benefit for both the hangingfly and the ginkgo species. This documentation of mimesis is a rare occasion whereby exquisitely preserved, co-occurring fossils occupy a narrow spatiotemporal window that reveal likely reciprocal mechanisms which plants and insects provide mutual defensive support during their preangiospermous evolutionary histories.
昨天翻到一篇有趣的文章，作者說這種來自侏儸紀的長翅目的蠍蛉(Juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia)偽裝一種多瓣葉的銀杏(Yimaia capituliformis)。

像不像是其次，我是覺得挺有趣的，連化石都能找出擬態的關係。

photo from Andreas Kay

一種擬態蛇頭的天蛾科幼蟲 Hemeroplanes triptolemus
分佈於亞瑪遜熱帶雨林的秘魯與厄瓜多。

作者原文如下

Snake-mimic caterpillar, Hemeroplanes triptolemus, Sphingidae from the Amazon rainforest near Puyo, Ecuador. When disturbed this larva of a sphinx moth expands and exposes the underside of the first body segments, mimicking a snake head with black eyes and even light reflections. Sometimes it also strikes like a snake to deter predators such as lizards or birds.

Additional photos at www.flickr.com/photos/andreaskay/sets/72157665346553825 Watch the video: https://youtu.be/1XUSYv7xgPo


Scientific article about false eyes in caterpillars: http://www.pnas.org/content/107/26/11659.full

出處 https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=1012593335486598&set=gm.1230747323619687&type=3&theater

copyright Merrill Lynch

無法確定是哪個科，不過看觸角是鱗翅目沒錯

雖然這很的確很像某種胡蜂（什麼特徵都有），但在我們還沒確認model是誰之前，沒辦法說這到底是完美還是不完美擬態

因為說不定那個當地根本沒有長的像這樣的胡蜂。

摘要 [原文網址]

Various forms of mimicry have been recorded in a large number of marine fishes; however, there have been no records of mimicry for any elasmobranch species. We propose that the distinctly banded neonates of the zebra shark (Stegostoma fasciatum) are Batesian mimics of banded sea snakes (Elapidae). Observations of banded juveniles ofS. fasciatum swimming close to the surface strongly resemble banded sea snakes in colour and body form as well as the undulatory swimming movements. Sea snakes are venomous and are known to defend themselves against predators. Although several shark species prey on them, most species appear to avoid sea snakes as prey items. Juvenile S. fasciatum possess a very long, single-lobed caudal fin that remarkably resembles the broad, paddle-like tail of sea snakes. This may be an adaptation enabling this species to mimic sea snakes, at least in the earliest life stages. There is a need for empirical testing of the hypothesis that juvenile S. fasciatum is a true example of Batesian mimicry, but here we provide evidence that suggests this may be the first example of mimicry in an elasmobranch species.

這篇的作者根據 Rettenmeyer 1970對於判定兩物種間貝氏擬態的關係是否成立，來定義豹紋鯊是否是海蛇的貝氏擬態（詳情請見文章內文）。

現在要判斷兩個物種是否互相擬態的文章越來越複雜，似乎有種要寫出一堆判定是否為擬態的理論才能發表，跟以前作者覺得像就像的趨勢不太一樣了。軟骨魚擬態海蛇這個擬態關係應該是第一次看到，之前的有名例子就是擬態章魚會改變行為擬態海蛇，但提出魚長得像海蛇的這是第一篇。

原圖位置http://goo.gl/vOcUhl

由黃文俊老師拍到的跳蜘，由第一對步足的型態判斷可能是擬態擬蠍

嗯.....可是擬態擬蠍可以幹嘛....而且其實體態不太相似

或者那步足只是單純的捕捉足，跟擬態沒關係？

補充：的確有文章指出這個樣子的跳蜘是擬態擬蠍 http://goo.gl/AoBX4s，是在美國的種類

該文根據的理由是(1)跟擬蠍共棲於樹皮下(2)體態扁平(3)花紋看起來由跟擬蠍一樣的分節

雖然這不是沒可能，但擬蠍....不好吃嗎？（驚）

相關的其他圖片請看這裡

蕨螟亞科的物種有很多參與跳蛛的擬態，可是大部分都有眼斑

這隻沒眼斑只有條紋，不知道是不是真的參與了擬態？

圖片來源: Kenji Nishida

Fig. 1 model 與 mimic的分佈區域

原文標題： A Müllerian  mimicry ring in Appalachian millipedes

摘要 [原文網址]

Few biological phenomena provide such an elegant and straightforward example of evolution by natural selection as color mimicry among unrelated organisms. By mimicking the appearance of a heavily defended aposematic species, members of a second species gain protection from predators and, potentially, enhanced fitness. Mimicking a preexisting warning advertisement is economical because a potentially costly novel one can be avoided; simultaneously, the addition of more aposematic individuals enhances the overall warning effect. The better-known mimetic systems comprise tropical taxa, but here, we show a remarkable example of color mimicry in 7 species of blind, cyanide-generating millipedes endemic to the Appalachian Mountains of temperate North America. Because these millipedes lack eyes, there is no sexual selection or intraspecific signaling for coloration, providing an ideal system for mimicry studies. We document a Müllerian symbiosis where unrelated species vary in color and pattern over geographical space but appear identical where they co-occur. By using spectral color data, estimations of evolutionary history, and detailed field observations of species abundance, we test 4 predictions of Müllerian mimicry theory and begin to unravel the story of an elaborate mimetic diversification in the forests of Appalachia.



這篇發在PNAS上。

一開始看到這篇，以為只是介紹個新發現的擬態群，然後居然發到PNAS上，好匪夷所思的事情，如果這樣的話，路邊隨便拍的的照片不就也可以寫了丟到PNAS上嗎？

Fig. 3 model與mimic的擬態相似度。

在搜尋文獻的時候，最常看到的是作者會寫「我認為這東西跟XX與YY物種是貝氏\穆氏擬態」，通常是作者覺得牠們長得像，不論其他條件，就是單純的牠們長得像，擬態就是作者說了算，而忽略了構成擬態必須要滿足某些擬態的條件，諸如共域、確認擬態環中扮演的角色與斑紋的相似度等等，這些雖然很基本，但很多文章忽略驗證要素。


作者群在阿帕拉契山發現了這個由馬陸構成的擬態群，接下來為了確認是些馬陸是否真的互相擬態，而去做以下的四種分析：

1. 用光學模型驗證相似度是來自相似的光學訊號
2. 長得像的不是因為親緣關係很近
3. 數量較少的是擬態者，數量較多的是擬態模型
4. 擬態者的斑紋區域變異跟隨擬態模型的區域變異

經過這些驗證後才確認這個擬態群的關係，並且是很好可以用來研究的材料。但後來似乎沒有繼續利用這群馬陸做的相關研究了。


ps. 馬陸被認為會分泌氰化物，會使其他動物對其避忌。

原文標題：New case of true mimicry in cockroaches (Blattodea)

摘要 [原文網址]

True mimicry is an extremely rare phenomenon in cockroaches, with beetles as their favorite models. So far, only very few Pseudophyllodromiinae could be identified that conform to all requirements for Batesian mimicry and similarly exist only isolated reports on Müllerian mimicry. The vast majority, however, of the so-called beetle-mimicking cockroaches only shows a high degree of generalized convergence regarding their outer appearance. Specific models or counterparts, respectively, are lacking. Here we report on a last instar nymph of an undescribed Blattinae (Blattodea: Blattidae) that accurately mimics a truly harmful, sympatric carabid beetle. Although no indications for inedibility of this cockroach became evident, thus making Batesian mimicry likely, Müllerian mimicry can not be excluded with certainty. At any rate, this represents both the first case of mimicry in Blattidae and the first case with a ground beetle (Carabidae) as model for a cockroach mimic.

姑且不論像不像（照片可能會有角度問題，不過這樣拍起來是真的滿像的），至少這個還滿有趣的，兩個都是跑很快的東西，兩個可能都有點臭，所以是什麼樣的擬態關係很難說啦！